Technology Department
Computer Ethics
"To
be good is noble, but to show others how
to be good is nobler, and no trouble."
-MARK TWAIN
ETHICS AND
SOCIETY
What will the future bring?
Will we live a life of leisure with all
our tedious chores per- formed by
intelligent machines? Perhaps we will
live instead in an 'information prison'
with all the details of our lives
recorded and analyzed by government or
by corporations that exist solely to buy
and sell information. To a large extent,
the future will be driven by the choices
we make now.
Computers permeate every aspect of our
lives. In addition to making businesses
more productive, they also perform many
life-critical tasks such as air-traffic
control, medical diagnosis and
treatment, and emergency communication.
The field of computer science is
unregulated. Programmers are not
required to pass proficiency exams or
obtain licenses to practice their art.
In an effort to protect society from the
obvious dangers, the field is regulating
itself. It does this by encouraging the
study of ethics and by demanding the
highest level of integrity from its
members. Professional organizations such
as the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) and the IEEE (institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
have adopted and instituted Code of
Ethics. Students are encouraged to join
these organizations and familiarize
themselves with these codes. Most
colleges and universities also have
policies governing the responsible use
of computers. Students are encouraged to
read these carefully and to develop
their own personal standards.
COMPUTER CRIME
AND SECURITY
'Rogue software' is a class
of software designed with some malicious
intent. 'Viruses" are programs that
'infect' software in order to replicate.
They usually do something harmful as
well. A virus may corrupt or erase
information on your disks. 'Worms" are
self-replicating programs that
repeatedly propagate until they
overwhelm the computer's resources.
Viruses tend to be problems on PCs.
Worms create problems on networks.
'Trojan horses' can occur anywhere.
These are programs that appear to do
something useful while secretly doing
something malicious. An example might be
a program that appears to be a space war
game that secretly transmits the user's
login, password, and user privileges to
someone else. Trojan horses are of
special concern on the Internet where
Java Applets may harbor rogue code.
The term 'hacker' has undergone a
semantic shift in recent years.
Originally the term meant someone who
wrote poor programs (a 'hack'). It then
came to mean a computer enthusiast. Now
it has come to mean a computer criminal
(sometimes also called 'crackers').
Hackers often justify their actions by
claiming that they are just trying to
learn about computers. Would-be hackers
might consider that computer security is
a rapidly expanding field. There is a
tremendous need for "computer
enthusiasts' with creative ideas.
Creating a secure system is a much more
challenging problem than breaking
security. Students who put their energy
into learning about computer security
may well be on the way to a bright
career!
How can we protect ourselves against
hackers and rogue programs? The first
line of defense is to use passwords that
are not dictionary words and to change
passwords frequently. It is very
important to have at least two copies of
every file at all times. It is also wise
to keep backups at separate locations
and in different media.
Users should keep antiviral software on
their computers and be sure that they
are familiar with how it works.
Antiviral software needs to be updated
periodically, at least every six months
or so.
Firewalls are systems that monitor
traffic between networks to ensure that
all network traffic is legitimate. Every
network connecting to the Internet
should have a firewall in place.
Institutions that allow modem access
should consider installing a modem "call
back" system to prevent unauthorized
access.
Traditional security is especially
important. Physically restricting access
to computer systems can prevent many
problems. The majority of computer
crimes are not committed by hackers, but
rather by employees or former employees
of organizations. This means that
employers need to screen applicants
carefully, monitor employees' behavior,
encourage a positive work ethic, and
reward integrity. Grievance procedures
should be in place to resolve
work-related problems and diffuse
hostilities when they arise. Secure
audit systems should be in place to
track fraud.
HEALTH CONCERNS
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Today, our economy is based
largely on information-related jobs.
This means that many of us spend long
hours behind the computer staring at
monitors. The most obvious problem this
creates is lack of exercise. We need to
remember to make exercise a regular part
of our lifestyle. A more insidious
problem is a class of injuries known as
repetitive stress injuries (RSIS) that
result from performing the same actions
repeatedly without taking breaks. Carpal
tunnel syndrome is one such injure that
may result from typing for many hours.
These in- juries can be incapacitating
and may require surgery.
Questions have been raised also whether
computer use can cause problems such as
miscarriages, birth defects, and cancer.
These are still controversial. Some have
suggested that stress and lack of
exercise may be more harmful than
electromagnetic radiation.
Staring at monitors for long periods of
time may cause one to lose the ability
to focus prematurely ('farsightedness').
One should reduce glare when possible
and use the highest resolution screen
possible. It is also advisable to look
away from the screen and focus on
distant objects periodically.
The ethical employer will insist on
ergonomic workstation design, encourage
employees to take regular breaks and
exercise, and watch for signs of
excessive stress in fast-paced
information-related jobs.
We think of the computer industry as
being relatively friendly to the
environment, but there are a number of
serious concerns. The manufacture of
computer chips can involve some
chemicals that need to be carefully
managed and disposed of. The ethical
manager will see to it that paper and
laser printer toner cartridges are
recycled. Beyond that, each programmer
and engineer needs to address the
question: 'will my contributions make
the world a better place or will my work
cause harm?"
INFORMATION
OWNERSHIP
Congress is granted the authority to
"promote the Progress of Science and
useful Art, by securing for limited
Times to Authors and Inventors the
exclusive Right to their respective
Writings and Discoveries.'
-US CONSTITUTION, AR-r. 1, SECTION 8,
CL. 8
Copyrights protect the
original expression of ideas. You can't
copyright a fact or the idea itself, but
you can copyright the expression of an
idea once it is fixed in a tangible
medium. (This may be written text,
recorded sound, or software stored on a
disk.) A phone call cannot be
copyrighted (unless taped), but email or
on-line chat may be copy- righted if it
is saved to disk. (Note that some
company contracts co-opt their employees
email copyrights.) Under today's laws, a
copyright notice (D is not required to
secure a copyright, nor need it be
registered. However, these precautions
will help to protect your work and
support your case should you try to
prove infringement. In 1989, the United
States signed the Berne Convention, an
international copyright agreement. With
the growth of the Internet,
international protection for
intellectual property is a rising
concern.
A copyright grants the copyright holder
exclusive rights to the work's
duplication, any derivative work, and
the right of distribution or display.
The integrity of the work must be
maintained and the work must be properly
attributed to the copyright holder. A
copyright is valid for 75 years or 50
years after the death of the author for
works created after 1977.
In a case of alleged copyright
infringement, similarity and intent are
evaluated. Damages up to $100,000 per
infringement may be awarded. The law
does allow for 'fair use' of copyrighted
material. In general, one may quote or
copy a small amount of copyrighted
material for educational purposes, or
for use by the news media.
Students should be aware that it is an
infringement to copy pictures or text
from other web sites onto your own web
page unless the copyright holder has
granted permission. Creating a link to
another page is legal (although this too
may soon be challenged in court!).
Similarly, it is illegal to scan in
images to use on your web page without
permission. You are essentially
'publishing' someone else's work. Note
that this is different from quoting
something in a written paper that you
submit as class work. As long as you
include only a small portion of the work
and properly attribute it to the author,
this is considered 'fair use.
Software is usually copyrighted. The
holder of the copyright does not sell
the software itself, but rather sells
licenses to use the software. It is
worth taking a minute to read the
license that comes with software you
purchase commercially. In general, it is
illegal to make copies of commercial
software except for the purposes of
making a backup. As a rule, you must
purchase a legal copy of the software
for every machine you intend to install
it on (although there are exceptions in
some cases). Large companies and
educational institutions will often
purchase 'site licenses' that allow them
to install the software on a network
file server. Duplicating software
without paying for it is called
"software piracy' or 'bootlegging.'
Sometimes software may be distributed as
'shareware.' Usually, shareware may be
freely duplicated and distributed, but
the author will require you to register
the software and pay a fee if you decide
to keep the software. Freeware is
software that the author has placed in
the public domain and may be duplicated
freely.
Inventions, processes, and algorithms
may be patented. An idea must pass a
rigorous set of tests in order to be
patented. The concept must be a new
idea, it must be useful, and it must be
"non-obvious' to other professionals
working in the field. A patent may be
held for 20 years and grants the patent
holder the right to control sale of the
invention and the right to royalties.
The legal system is struggling to manage
the protection of electronic
intellectual property. Does it make
sense to grant individual exclusive
rights to an idea for 20 years in the
rapidly changing field of computer
science? As the use of computerized
information continues to increase,
society will need to adapt by making new
laws and by changing existing laws.
Exciting careers await those who combine
the study of law and the study of
computer science!
INETIQUETTE' AND
HOAXES
On-line 'chat,' newsgroups,
and email provide a new realm of social
interaction. In one sense, the lack of
face-to-face interaction has a leveling
effect on society. We make judgments
based on a person's ideas instead of on
their age, race, social standing,
religion, ethnicity, or appearance. On
the other hand, there is a disturbing
lack of accountability that leads people
to engage in inflammatory exchanges.
These "flame wars" are usually viewed by
more experienced users as a sign of
immaturity and inexperience.
Chain mail is disallowed by many
institutions and may be illegal in some
instances. Be suspicious of mail that
encourages you to forward the message to
many other users. These messages may try
to play on your emotions with such
statements as: 'Little Johnny is dying
of cancer and would like your email
messages before he dies . . . " Or
'Forward this mail to as many people as
you can and it will bring you luck. If
you don't, some serious harm will come
to you.' Such 'chain mail' propagates
quickly and overwhelms network
resources. Don't be taken in!
Virus warnings are often hoaxes. Be
especially leery of email viruses such
as the ‘Good Times’ virus. (This is a
very old hoax!) Check with CERT (the
Computer Emergency Response Team) to
verify virus alerts.
Should anonymous email be permitted?
Should we be accountable for the things
that we say? On the one hand, we
instinctively want to have the ability
to "blow the whistle’
anonymously-especially in cases where
negative repercussions are likely.
Anonymity may also protect such people
as Aids patients, abuse victims, etc.
who need to get information or support.
On the other hand, anonymous email makes
it easy to harass other users or make
libelous statements. Before sending
anonymous email, ask yourself why you
need to send it anonymously. Is it
really because you may be unfairly
punished or is it really just a way to
say something you are not brave enough
to take responsibility for?
PRIVACY
Database technology and the
Internet make it very easy to store and
transmit large quantities of
information. Everything from our medical
histories to our driving records are
routinely bought and sold. As a society
we need to come to terms with what
information should be stored, how its
accuracy can be verified, how it should
be protected, and when it should be
destroyed.
Ask yourself how you would
feel if you were turned down for a loan
because your credit history had been
accidentally (or deliberately!) swapped
with someone else's. When it is your
word against the computers, where is the
burden of proof? Now imagine a worse
scenario. Imagine that your name and
social security number is very close to
that of a convicted felon. Might this
affect your ability to get a government
job? On the other hand, law enforcement
needs to maintain extensive databases to
assist them in preventing and solving
crimes.
Recently, there has been discussion of
implementing the routine "profiling" of
airline passengers and subjecting those
with suspicious profiles to extra
searches. Profiles would be generated by
matching information in a number of
databases to try to identify
'suspicious' persons. Is safety more
important than civil liberty? Should you
have the right to know what information
about you is being stored?
With world populations continuing to
rise, governments and economies become
increasingly dependent on computerized
systems to function. The danger is that
if we do not make careful choices, we
will be ever defined and controlled by
data files. Worse, in the wrong hands,
information systems can become the tools
of oppressors.
As computer professionals, you can do
your part to protect privacy by
observing security precautions,
restricting access to information, and
by encouraging professional behavior
among your colleagues. Remember that
email should be treated as if it were a
'post card,' and not a sealed letter.
Information that needs to be kept
private should be encrypted and
important documents should be digitally
"signed.' You should become familiar
with the Electronic Communications
Privacy Act (ECPA) of 1986 that protects
private communications.
QUALITY CONTROL AND RISK REDTJCTION
As you are beginning to
learn, writing good software is
extremely difficult. Software needs to
be carefully designed, carefully
developed, and tested as thoroughly as
possible. Commercial software is
routinely put through in-house testing
("alpha' testing) and then testing by
select clients ('beta" testing). Some
managers will even plant bugs in their
products knowing that in the process of
finding these bugs, their programmers
will uncover other errors. Standards for
software in life-critical applications
need to be extremely high. Interfaces
must be easy to learn and must be
'bullet proof." They must anticipate
user errors and safeguard against
potentially serious mistakes. If serious
flaws are detected, there should be some
mechanism in place to report problems
and correct them quickly.
Computers are powerful
tools. This means that when we make
mistakes with computers, they tend to be
large scale! As students you should
learn to do "back of the envelope'
approximations to develop a sense when
results are wrong. You should develop a
style of coding that is readable.
Remember that the person writing the
code may well not be the one to maintain
it! Even when code appears to work, make
use of debuggers, the assert statement,
or simply print out the values of
variables to make sure that code is
correct. Finally, document your code
thoroughly with comments, 'help" or
'read me" files, manuals, or whatever
system is required by the application.
THE FUTURE
Advances in technology are
creating many admirable improvements in
the quality of many lives.
"Telecommuting' enables new parents to
work, improves access for the disabled,
and helps the environment by cutting
down on traffic. 'Distance learning' is
making educational opportunities
available throughout the world. All
sorts of new economic possibilities are
being created. Improvements in the speed
of worldwide communication and the vast
amount of information now readily
available is bound to have profound
implications we are only just beginning
to imagine. Yet there are dangerous
hazards to be negotiated. Choices we
make now will determine how well we will
meet these challenges.
ANNE MARCHANT,
PH. D.
GEORGE MASON
UNIVERSITY
